1. Preunderstanding fallacy: Believing you can interpret with complete objectivity, not recognizing that you have preunderstandings that influence your interpretation. There is no such thing as a “white-coat” interpreter. In other words, there is no one who comes to the text as a scientist who objectively interprets the data. We all are influenced by many things including our upbringing, culture, personality, and others preunderstandings. Once we recognize this, we are better equipped to interpret the text honesty. Otherwise, our preunderstanding will always rule over our interpretation. 2...

Affirming the consequent, sometimes called converse error, is a formal fallacy, committed by reasoning in the form: If P, then Q. Q. Therefore, P. Arguments of this form are invalid, in that arguments of this form do not always give good reason to establish their conclusions, even if their premises are true. The name affirming the consequent derives from the premise Q, which affirms the “then” clause of the conditional premise. One way to demonstrate the invalidity of this argument form is with a counterexample with true premises but an obviously false conclusion. For example: If Bill Gate...